Diane Brewer’s article details a bilingual production of West Side Story featuring Deaf and hearing actors, aiming to bridge cultural and linguistic divides. Deaf actors from the Illinois School for the Deaf played the Sharks, using ASL, while hearing actors from MacMurray College played the Jets. The team faced challenges in translation, musical timing, and accessibility, using interpreters and visual cues to support communication. The production incorporated Deaf cultural traditions like sign poetry and emphasized collaboration over assimilation. Brewer reflects on the project’s educational and cultural impact, advocating for inclusive theatre that respects and centres Deaf identity.

Brewer, D. (2002). West Side Silence: Producing West Side Story with Deaf and Hearing Actors. Theatre Topics, 12(1), 17–34. https://doi.org/10.1353/tt.2002.0003

Brenda Jo Brueggemann’s chapter "Approaching American Sign Language Literature Rhetorically and Digitally" critiques the dominance of linguistic approaches in the study of American Sign Language (ASL) and calls for a rhetorical and digital reorientation. She argues that ASL literature, especially its visual and embodied forms like ABC and 123 stories, should be studied through rhetorical frameworks that consider audience, meaning-making, and performance. Using Ella Mae Lentz’s poem “Eye Music” as a case study, Brueggemann illustrates how classifiers and sign language poetics function as powerful rhetorical tools. She advocates for a digital anthology to preserve, archive, and analyze ASL literature, stressing the need for inclusive access, authorial control, and recognition of ASL as a legitimate literary tradition. The chapter highlights tensions between performance and preservation, audience interaction and digital media, and translation and authenticity. Brueggemann calls for collaborative academic and community efforts to document ASL literature and ensure its future through evolving media.

Brueggemann, B. (2009). 3. Approaching American Sign Language Literature: Rhetorically and Digitally. In Deaf Subjects: Between Identities and Places (pp. 38-71). New York, USA: New York University Press. https://doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9780814799666.003.0004

Hilary U. Cohen’s article “Theatre by and for the Deaf” explores the cultural significance of Deaf theatre, especially as seen at the 1987 World Federation of the Deaf Congress. Featuring international performances using sign language, mime, and gesture, the event highlighted visual storytelling tailored to Deaf audiences. Cohen contrasts U.S. Deaf theatre—often adapted for hearing audiences—with European models that emerge from within Deaf communities, emphasizing Deaf identity, satire, and cultural empowerment. The article also discusses the difficulty of translating traditional scripts into sign language and advocates for original, visually-driven content. Deaf theatre, Cohen argues, creates a distinct, inclusive cultural space.

Cohen, H. U. (1989). Theatre by and for the Deaf. TDR (1988-), 33(1), 68. https://doi.org/10.2307/1145945

In her article, Paula Garfield reflects on Deafinitely Theatre’s 2012 British Sign Language (BSL) adaptation of Love’s Labour’s Lost at the Globe Theatre, highlighting the collaborative process of translating Shakespeare’s linguistically rich text into a visually expressive form. Rather than aiming for a literal translation, the team focused on conveying meaning through BSL’s poetic qualities—gesture, facial expression, and physicality—while adapting to the Globe’s unique staging. The result was an inclusive, visually dynamic performance that resonated with both Deaf and hearing audiences, prompting widespread appreciation for Shakespeare and sign language alike. Garfield emphasizes the broader potential of integrating sign language into theater to expand access, representation, and artistic expression.

Garfield, P. (2016, January 25). Signing Shakespeare: How we translated Love’s Labour’s Lost into British Sign Language. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2016/jan/25/signing-shakespeare-bsl-loves-labours-lost-globe

Haughey and Armstrong’s article highlights the unique theatrical power of sign languages on stage, focusing on New Zealand Sign Language (NZSL) and the work of Deaf actor Shaun Fahey. Through techniques like theatricalized sign language and Visual Vernacular, Fahey created visually rich, expressive performances that engaged both Deaf and hearing audiences. The authors argue that sign languages bring a distinct visual and embodied grammar to theatre, allowing for innovative, inclusive storytelling grounded in Deaf culture and aesthetics.

Haughey, L., & Armstrong, D. (2019). On the Theatricality of Sign Languages on Stage. Performance Research, 24(4), 76–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/13528165.2019.1641327

Miriam Gantz Horwitz’s article examines how ASL interpreters translate theatrical performances for Deaf audiences, focusing on strategies to ensure an equivalent experience. Using Mary Poppins as a case study, she highlights the demands of interpreting rapid dialogue, music, and stage action. Interpreters used techniques like matching musical rhythm in sign, throwing focus to key visual moments, and adjusting for Deaf cultural norms. The article stresses the importance of rehearsal, teamwork, and dynamic translation over word-for-word interpretation. It calls for more training, research, and Deaf involvement in theatrical interpreting.

Gantz Horwitz, Miriam (2014) "Demands and Strategies of Interpreting a Theatrical Performance into American Sign Language," Journal of Interpretation: Vol. 23: Iss. 1, Article 4. Available at: http://digitalcommons.unf.edu/joi/vol23/iss1/4

This text delineates the distinction between translating Shakespeare’s works into sign language and interpreting them for live audiences. Llewellyn-Jones provides a practical framework for interpreting Shakespearean plays, highlighting challenges such as the speed of delivery and the need for cultural mediation. The author advocates for interpreting as a collaborative and adaptive process, aligning the interpreter’s understanding with the director’s vision​.

Llewellyn-Jones, P. (2012). Interpreting Shakespeare’s plays into British Sign Language. In T. Hoenselaars (Author), Shakespeare and the Language of Translation: Revised Edition (pp. 199–214). London: Bloomsbury Methuen Drama. Retrieved April 23, 2025, from http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781408179734.ch-011

McDonnell discusses the Oregon Shakespeare Festival's integration of ASL in their production of Cymbeline, with Deaf actor Howie Seago as a central figure. The production challenges the primacy of auditory communication in theater and showcases ASL as a rich, performative language. McDonnell argues for the aesthetic and political significance of anti-audist practices, using ASL to enhance both narrative and character development​.

McDonnell, M. (2017). Signing Shakespeare: Staging American Sign Language in Cymbeline. Shakespeare Bulletin35(1), 37-63. https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/shb.2017.0002

Kaitlyn Mielke’s thesis explores the art of interpreting Broadway musicals into ASL, highlighting the lack of standard practices and the need for better training and collaboration. She introduces a new model placing interpreters alongside the cast, emphasizing their dual role in performance and accessibility. Through examples like Wicked and Mary Poppins, she shows how interpreters must creatively balance meaning and delivery. Mielke calls for national standards and greater recognition of interpreters as key contributors to inclusive theatre experiences for Deaf and hard-of-hearing audiences.

Mielke, K. (2014). The song that goes like this: The art of theatrical sign language interpreting and translating (Master’s thesis, University of Minnesota). University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy. https://hdl.handle.net/11299/165509

Jennifer L. Nelson’s chapter, “Sign Gain to Deaf Gain,” traces how 17th-century rhetorician John Bulwer’s focus on gesture anticipated modern Deaf-centered theatre. Though Bulwer wrote for hearing audiences, his work celebrated the eloquence of the body, laying a foundation for recognizing sign language as a rich expressive medium. Nelson connects this historical perspective to contemporary ASL Shakespeare performances, particularly Peter Novak’s Twelfth Night, where sign language transforms static gestures into live theatrical expression. This shift from Sign Gain to Deaf Gain highlights Deaf culture’s contribution to theatre, showing how embodied language enhances understanding, creativity, and inclusivity in Shakespearean performance.

Nelson, J.L. (2020). Sign Gain to Deaf Gain: Deafness in Early Modern Manual Rhetoric and Modern Shakespeare Performances. In: Dunn, L.C. (eds) Performing Disability in Early Modern English Drama. Literary Disability Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57208-2_12

Peter Novak’s thesis explores the translation of Shakespeare’s The Tempest into American Sign Language (ASL), emphasizing the cultural and performative strengths of ASL over literal, English-based approaches. He critiques traditional methods that impose English poetic forms like iambic pentameter onto a visual language and instead advocates for a culturally grounded, collaborative process involving Deaf interpreters and actors. Drawing parallels between Caliban’s oppression and the marginalization of Deaf communities, Novak frames the translation as both artistic and political. He highlights ASL’s spatial and expressive features—such as classifiers and visual metaphors—as ideal tools for reimagining Shakespeare’s work in a Deaf-centric, theatrical context.

Novak, P. (1993). The Tempest in translation: Shakespeare and American Sign Language (Master’s thesis, Gallaudet University). ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

Novak investigates the complexities of translating Twelfth Night into ASL, emphasizing the spatial and kinetic dimensions of the language. This work highlights the importance of developing systematic methodologies for translating Shakespeare into ASL, preserving the play's artistic and cultural integrity while ensuring accessibility for Deaf audiences. Novak also addresses the tension between maintaining Shakespeare’s original text and adapting it to a visual medium.

Novak, P. (2008). ‘Where Lies Your Text?’: Twelfth Night in American Sign Language Translation. In P. Holland (Ed.), Shakespeare Survey (pp. 74–90). chapter, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/shakespeare-survey/where-lies-your-text-twelfth-night-in-american-sign-language-translation/1E3267394A9DB1C998CEAA25C2AF140B

Novak, P., Rowe, K., Hoenselaars, T., Kusunoki, A., Murphy, A., & da Cunha Resende, A. (2016). Signing Shakespeare (ASL). In B. R. Smith (Ed.), The Cambridge Guide to the Worlds of Shakespeare (pp. 1357–1362). chapter, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-guide-to-the-worlds-of-shakespeare/signing-shakespeare-asl/0042B78FB38CCCD2B87D0E0C0801E333

Rumbold examines Deafinitely Theatre’s BSL adaptation of Love’s Labour’s Lost, a comedy rooted in linguistic playfulness. The production reimagines Shakespeare’s wordplay through the visual medium of BSL, navigating challenges such as metaphor translation and audience inclusivity. Rumbold underscores the symbolic significance of adapting Shakespeare into BSL, reflecting both cultural autonomy and inclusion​.

Rumbold, K. (2013). ‘No words!’: Love’s Labour’s Lost in British Sign Language. In S. Bennett & C. Carson (Eds.), Shakespeare beyond English: A Global Experiment (pp. 227–236). chapter, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/shakespeare-beyond-english/no-words/1DF73A7881403B275A4ADFC82E0FA252

Shurgot, M.W. (2012). Breaking the Sound Barrier: Howie Seago and American Sign Language at Oregon Shakespeare Festival. Shakespeare Bulletin30(1), 21-36. https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/shb.2012.0019

This article compares two versions of Shakespeare’s Sonnet 29: one performed in ASL and one from the 1609 printed quarto. The ASL version is an embodied, live act, while the printed version is a static text. The differences highlight how form affects meaning—through body vs. page, gesture vs. words, and live performance vs. historical object. Each medium requires a different way of reading and understanding, showing how the mode of communication shapes our experience of the poem.

Smith, B. R. (2009). How should one read a Shakespeare sonnet? Early Modern Literary Studies, 12(19 SI). https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A432274009/AONE?u=anon~e41ef537&sid=googleScholar&xid=890ef6c6

Lindsey D. Snyder’s dissertation explores how American Sign Language (ASL) translations of Shakespeare can reflect the original plays’ emotion, rhythm, and meaning through performance-based strategies. Drawing on rhetorical gesture theory and ASL linguistics, she proposes a method that uses gesture, space, and ASL’s visual grammar to convey Shakespeare’s intent. Rather than literal translation, Snyder emphasizes expressive, embodied interpretation that integrates interpreters into the performance. Her work promotes ASL Shakespeare as both accessible and artistically rich.

Snyder, L. D. (2009). Sawing the air thus: American sign language translations of Shakespeare and the echoes of rhetorical gesture (Order No. 3368897). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (304920964). https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/sawing-air-thus-american-sign-language/docview/304920964/se-2

Turner and Pollitt (2002) argue that sign language interpreting in theatre is a hybrid practice combining elements of community interpreting and literary translation. Using British theatre examples, they highlight the unique demands interpreters face—such as translating poetic language, managing stage cues, and performing in real time. Unlike typical interpreting, theatre work requires creativity, character portrayal, and integration into the performance. The authors emphasize the interpreter’s dual role as both linguistic mediator and cultural performer, calling for greater recognition of the artistic and political complexity of sign language interpreting in theatrical settings.

Turner, G. H., & Pollitt, K. (2002). Community Interpreting Meets Literary Translation: English-BSL Interpreting in the Theatre. The Translator, 8(1), 25–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/13556509.2002.10799115